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Tables of Contents for Arboriculture
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
xi
Introduction to Arboriculture
1
12
Arboriculture
1
1
Arboriculture in Practice
2
4
Regulation of Tree Care Activities
4
2
Relationship of Arboriculture to Urban Forests and Urban Forestry
6
2
Urban Forestry
6
1
Arboriculture and Sustainable Urban Forests
7
1
The Guiding Principles of Arboriculture
8
4
Review
12
1
Further Reading
12
1
Plant Structure and Function
13
39
Mechanical Design of Trees
14
1
Crown Development
15
4
Shoots
15
1
Buds
15
1
Shoot Elongation
16
2
Patterns of Shoot Elongation
18
1
The Leaf
19
1
The Crown
20
3
Form: Excurrent, Decurrent, and Apical Control
20
3
The Root
23
6
Roots and Soil Organisms
24
2
Root Development
26
1
Size of Root Systems
27
1
Roots and Underground Pipes
28
1
Girdling Roots
28
1
The Trunk
29
7
Xylem
30
1
Phloem and Bark
31
1
Trunk Taper
31
3
Compartmentalization
34
1
Wood Decay
35
1
Branch Attachment
36
2
Palms
38
2
Reproductive Development
40
2
Angiosperm Flowers
40
1
Gymnosperm Flowers
41
1
Tree Death
42
1
How Trees Die
42
1
Overview of Basic Physiological Processes
43
1
Photosynthesis
43
1
Respiration
43
1
Transpiration
44
1
Control Mechanisms of Growth and Development
44
5
Genetic Controls
44
1
Environmental Controls
45
1
Time
46
2
Plant Growth Regulators
48
1
Integration of Growth over Time
49
2
Root--Shoot Ratio
50
1
Review
51
1
Further Reading
51
1
Site Evaluation: Climate and Environment
52
22
Plant Climates: Temperature
53
11
Cold Temperatures
55
2
Lowest Temperature Expectable
57
1
Spring and Fall Cold
58
2
Protecting against Frosts
60
2
Winter Chilling and Rest
62
2
High Temperatures
64
1
Light: Radiation
64
3
Photosynthesis
65
1
Phototropism
65
1
Photoperiodism
65
1
Night Lighting
66
1
Transpiration
67
1
Moisture
67
2
Rain
67
1
Fog
67
1
Dew
68
1
Drought
68
1
Excess Moisture
68
1
Hail
69
1
Snow and Glaze Ice
69
1
Wind
69
2
Plant Damage
70
1
Transpiration
70
1
Photosynthesis
71
1
Windchill Factor
71
1
Urban Climate
71
1
Review
72
1
Further Reading
73
1
Planting Site: Soil and Water
74
28
Evaluation of Soils
75
21
Soil Formation
75
2
Soil Physical Characteristics
77
3
Chemical Properties of Soils
80
3
Biological Properties of Soil
83
2
Soil Organic Matter
85
2
Soil Quality and Health
87
1
Urban Soils
88
3
Evaluating Site Soils
91
5
Water Quality
96
4
Evaluating Water Quality
97
2
Selection of Sites Suitable for Irrigation with Recycled Water
99
1
Review
100
1
Further Reading
101
1
Benefits of Trees
102
16
Air Quality
103
2
Primary Atmospheric Contaminants
103
1
Pollutants from Trees---Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds
103
1
Air Purification by Trees
103
1
Carbon Uptake and Storage
104
1
Air Temperature, Wind, and Energy Savings
105
5
Trees and Wind
105
1
Energy Conservation---Direct Benefits
106
2
Energy Conservation---Indirect Benefits
108
1
Energy Conservation---Deferred Costs of Energy Production
109
1
Energy Conservation through Strategic Tree Planting
109
1
Storm Water Runoff and Erosion Control
110
1
Noise Reduction
111
1
Psychological and Social Benefits of Trees
111
2
The Restorative Power of Nature
111
1
Urban Forests and Human Behavior
112
1
Summary of Psychological and Social Benefits of Trees
113
1
Economic Values
113
2
Appraisal of the Value of Landscape Trees
114
1
Other Approaches to Value
114
1
The True and Full Accounting of the Urban Forest---Cost-Benefit Analysis
115
1
Review
116
1
Further Reading
116
2
A Final Note
118
1
Plant Selection
118
19
Selecting the Right Plant
118
6
Inherent Characteristics
119
1
Growth Habit and Size
119
3
Plant Features
122
1
Native Plants
123
1
Plant Selection Programs
124
1
Sources and Size of Planting Stock
124
1
Performance Following Planting
125
1
Selecting Quality Plants
126
9
Root Characteristics
126
4
The Future
130
1
Top and Trunk Characteristics
130
1
Top-to-Root Relationships
130
3
Health
133
1
Inspecting Plants
133
1
Additional Thoughts
134
1
Review
135
1
Further Reading
136
1
Modifying and Managing the Site
137
45
Modifying Soil Physical Properties
137
15
Modifying Soil Texture and Improving Structure
138
8
Improving Surface Drainage
146
1
Improving Internal Drainage
147
4
Improving Soil Moisture Conditions
151
1
Modifying Soil Chemical Properties
152
6
Adjusting Soil Reaction
152
1
Reclaiming Saline Soils
153
4
Reclaiming Sodic and Saline-Sodic Soils
157
1
Enhancing and Maintaining Soil Organic Matter
158
17
Organic Soil Amendments
159
3
Mulches
162
13
Improving the Biological Activity of Soil
175
5
Improving Symbiotic Associations
175
3
Applying Mycorrhizal Fungi to the Landscape
178
2
Review
180
1
Further Reading
181
1
Planting
182
26
Seeds, Liner Plants, and Cuttings
182
2
Planting Seed
182
1
Planting Liner Plants
183
1
Sticking Cuttings
184
1
Young Plants
184
17
Season to Plant
184
1
Handling Plants before Planting
185
1
Preparing the Planting Hole
185
1
Pruning Roots
186
2
Setting the Plant
188
1
Backfilling
189
1
Treatments That May Enhance Rooting
189
1
Wire Baskets
190
1
Pruning
191
1
Staking
192
6
Alternatives to Support Staking
198
1
Treeshelters
199
2
Care Following Planting
201
5
Water
201
1
Turf
202
2
Bedding and Ground-Cover Plants
204
1
Weed Management
204
1
Cultivation
205
1
Effects of Bare Soil around Plants
206
1
Review
206
1
Further Reading
207
1
Transplanting Large Plants
208
14
Selection of Plants
208
1
Species
208
1
Size and Quality
209
1
Site Characteristics
209
1
Season of Transplanting
209
1
Methods of Transplanting
210
6
Bare Root
210
1
Ball-in-Burlap
210
2
Frozen Root Ball
212
1
Bare Root Ball
213
1
Box
213
2
Mechanical Tree Movers
215
1
Planting
216
2
Protecting the Trunk
217
1
Watering and Mulching
217
1
Pruning
218
1
Transplanting Palms
218
2
Preparing to Move
218
2
Planting
220
1
Postplanting Care
220
1
Evaluating Success
220
1
Review
221
1
Further Reading
221
1
Special Management Situations
222
34
Trees in Pavement
222
5
Providing an Environment Adequate for Tree Growth
222
5
Root--Pavement Conflicts
227
7
Preventing Root--Pavement Conflicts
228
4
Remedial Treatment for Existing Root--Pavement Conflicts
232
2
Roots and Pavement---The Future?
234
1
Tree Roots in Sewers
234
3
Sewer Design and Construction
234
1
Tree Planting Practices---Species Selection and Placement
234
2
Mechanical Treatment to Control Roots in Sewers
236
1
Chemical Treatment to Control Roots in Sewers
236
1
Remedial Treatments to Sewer Line
237
1
Recycling Wood Waste
237
4
Material Generated
237
1
Recycling of Wood Waste
237
1
Composting
238
1
Recycling Tree Trunks
239
2
The Future
241
1
Managing Fire-Safe Landscapes
241
4
Basic Elements of Fire Behavior
242
1
Managing Fire Fuels
242
1
Evaluating Fire-Damaged Plants
242
2
Community Education and Awareness
244
1
Managing Forest Remnants
245
3
Function of Forest Remnants
246
1
Guiding Principles
246
1
Management Goals
246
2
Summary of Managing Forest Remnants
248
1
Roots and Buildings
248
4
The Role of Trees in Structural Damage
248
1
Diagnosing Tree Contribution to Structural Damage
249
1
Soil Expansion
250
1
Correcting and Avoiding Problem Situations
251
1
Other Special Management Situations
252
3
Planters without Natural Drainage
252
1
Areas That Are Periodically Flooded
253
1
Landfill Sites
254
1
Coastal Locations
254
1
Review
255
1
Further Reading
255
1
Preserving Existing Trees
256
24
Why Trees Are Preserved
256
1
Goals of Tree Preservation
256
1
An Overview of the Land Development Process
257
1
The Tree Preservation Process
258
7
Conducting a Tree Survey
258
1
Suitability for Preservation
258
2
Identifying a Tree Protection Zone
260
1
Locating Trees on Plans
261
2
Assessing Construction Impacts to Trees
263
2
Designs to Minimize Impacts to Trees
265
11
Grading Considerations
266
5
Footing and Foundation Design
271
1
Structure Design
272
1
Utilities and Services
272
2
Installing Pavement
274
2
Construction Specifications
276
1
Preconstruction Treatments
276
2
Arboricultural Treatments to Improve Health
276
1
Provide Clearance for Construction Activities
277
1
Protect Tree from Damage
277
1
Clear Unwanted Vegetation
278
1
Tree Protection During Construction
278
1
Review
278
1
Further Reading
279
1
Nutrient Management
280
29
Relationships among Soil, Nutrients, and Plants
280
1
Physical Properties of Soil
280
1
Chemical Properties of Soil
280
1
Organic and Inorganic Sources of Nutrients
281
1
Essential Plant Nutrients
282
17
Macronutrients
282
7
Micronutrients
289
10
Fertilizing and Fertilizers
299
1
Complete Fertilizers
299
1
Plant Adaptation to Low Nutrient Levels
299
1
Nitrogen and Phosphorus and Root and Shoot Growth
300
3
Determining Nutrient Needs and Toxicity Problems
301
2
Fertilizer Application Methods
303
2
Time of Application
305
1
Fertilizing Young Plants
306
1
Fertilizing Root-Damaged Mature Trees
307
1
Fertilizing Palms
307
1
Potential Fertilizer Pollution
307
1
Review
308
1
Further Reading
308
1
Water Management
309
26
Soil Water
309
4
Movement of Water
312
1
Water Use by Plants
313
2
Atmospheric Demand
313
1
Plant Restriction of Water Loss
313
2
Soil Moisture Reservoir
315
1
Plant Adaptations to Natural Water Supply
315
4
Drought
317
2
Supplying Additional Water Through Irrigation
319
4
Determining When and How Much to Irrigate
319
1
Applying Water
320
2
Managing Water for Young Trees
322
1
Establishing a Water Management Program
323
5
Adjustments to Reference Evapotranspiration (Eto)
324
2
Putting It All Together to Start a Management Program
326
1
Additional Comments
327
1
Landscape Water Conservation
328
3
Managing Landscapes during a Drought
330
1
Irrigating with Recycled Water
330
1
Antitranspirants
331
1
Review
332
2
Further Reading
334
1
Pruning
335
57
General Principles of Pruning
335
13
Purposes of Pruning
335
1
Reasons for Pruning
335
1
Pruning Responses
336
4
Pruning Techniques
340
4
Making the Pruning Cut
344
3
Protecting Pruning Cuts
347
1
Pruning Trees
348
21
Structural Strength
348
2
Long and Short Pruning
350
1
Long Pruning: Natural
351
1
Training Young Trees
351
3
Pruning at Planting
354
1
Training in the Landscape
354
6
Pruning Mature Trees
360
9
Short Pruning
369
6
Screen (Curtain) Pruning
369
1
Pollard
370
3
Topiary
373
1
Pleach
374
1
Bonsai
374
1
Coniferous Trees
375
5
Whorl-Branching Species
378
1
Random-Branching Species
379
1
Pruning Severity
379
1
Columnar Conifers
379
1
Nursery-Grown Trees
380
1
Young Conifers in the Landscape
380
1
Palm Trees
380
3
Shrubs
383
4
General Shrub Pruning Considerations
383
1
Pruning Deciduous Shrubs
383
1
Pruning Evergreen Shrubs
384
1
Shrubs into Small Trees
385
1
Hedges
385
2
Roses (Rosa)
387
1
Vines
387
3
Review
390
1
Further Reading
391
1
Control of Plant Growth
392
13
Stimulation of Growth
392
1
Chemical Control of Plant Height
392
8
Growth Control Mechanisms
392
8
Chemical Control of Trunk Sprouts
400
1
Killing Woody Plants
401
2
Chemical Control of Flowering, Fruit Set, and Mistletoes
403
1
Review
404
1
Tree Hazard Management
405
29
Components of Hazard Evaluations
405
4
Inspection Period
408
1
Factors Influencing Tree Failure
409
3
Species
409
2
Size and Age
411
1
Site
411
1
Maintenance Practices
412
1
Defects
412
1
Evaluating Defects
412
6
Visual Tree Assessment
412
1
Tree Structure
413
2
Increased Exposure
415
1
Leaning Trees
415
1
Frost Cracks and Lightning Scars
415
1
Dead Trees and Branches
415
1
Root Defects
415
1
Cankers
416
1
Decay
417
1
Evaluating the Potential for Failure Caused by Decay
418
8
Direct Methods of Decay Detection
418
7
Selecting Sampling Locations
425
1
Evaluating Strength Loss from Decay
425
1
Evaluating the Potential for Windthrow
426
2
Evaluating the Potential for Summer Branch Drop
428
1
Evaluating Targets
429
1
Tree Hazard Management
429
1
Hazard Rating Systems
430
1
Hazard Abatement
430
2
Review
432
1
Further Reading
432
2
Preventive Maintenance and Repair
434
22
Tree Support Systems
434
15
A Note of Caution on Use of Support Systems
435
2
Cabling
437
5
Bracing
442
2
Sling Systems
444
1
Guying
444
2
Propping
446
1
Lightning Protection
447
2
Care of Wounds and Cavities
449
5
Injection Wounds
451
1
Caring for Trees with Wounds
452
2
Cavities
454
1
Treating Cavities
454
1
Review
455
1
Further Reading
455
1
Diagnosing Plant Problems
456
45
The Diagnosis
456
1
Evaluating Symptoms and Signs
456
9
Distinguishing What Is Normal and Abnormal
459
3
A Diagnostic Approach
462
1
Diagnostic Tools
463
2
Collecting Samples
465
1
Identifying Common Plant Problems
465
1
Abiotic Agents
466
10
Mechanical Injury
466
1
Chemical Injury
467
3
Thermal Injury
470
1
Lightning
470
1
Nutrient Deficiency
471
1
Problems Related to Soil and Roots
472
2
Air Quality
474
2
Biotic Agents
476
10
Leaf Diseases
478
1
Cankers
478
1
Causal Agents
479
7
Sources of Help
486
1
Review
487
1
Further Reading
488
13
Plant Health Care: The Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines
501
24
Integrated Pest Management
502
2
Integrated Pest Management and its Application to Arboriculture
504
2
Key Pest---Key Plant---Key Stress
504
1
Action Thresholds
504
1
Monitoring
505
1
Control Options
506
5
Regulatory Control
506
1
Genetic Control
506
1
Biological Control
506
1
Cultural Control
507
1
Chemical Control
508
3
Plant Health Care in Practice
511
7
The Integrated Management of Oak Wilt
511
3
The Integrated Management of Vegetation along Transmission Rights-of-Way
514
2
The Management of Mature Trees
516
2
Review
518
1
Further Reading
518
1
Appendices
I. Specifications for Acceptance of Landscape Nursery Trees
519
2
II. Pruning Specifications
521
2
III. Measurement Conversions
523
2
Glossary
525
10
Bibliography
535
28
Index
563