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Tables of Contents for Radionuclide Exposure of the Embryo/Fetus
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Preface
iii
Introduction
1
4
Purpose
1
1
Scope
1
2
Background
3
2
Sources of Exposure
5
2
Recommendations and Regulations
7
4
Current Recommendations, Rules and Regulations
8
1
Perspective and Related Activities
9
1
Expression of Prenatal Doses as Exposure Limits
10
1
Prenatal Development
11
17
Preimplantation Development
13
2
Implantation and Early Post-Implantation Development
15
3
Embryo
15
2
Extraembryonic Structures
17
1
Fetal Period
18
4
Fetus
18
1
Placenta and Extraembryonic Structures
18
3
Comparative Placental Morphology
21
1
Fetal Organ Systems
22
6
Central Nervous System
22
1
Circulation
23
1
Blood-Brain Barrier
24
1
Thyroid
25
1
Bone
26
1
Yolk Sac Derivatives
27
1
Maternal-Fetal Exchange
28
11
Availability for Transport
28
1
Mechanisms of Transfer
28
3
Simple Diffusion
28
2
Facilitated Diffusion
30
1
Active Transport
30
1
Pinocytosis
30
1
Membrane Rupture
31
1
Research Approaches
31
4
Introduction
31
1
Human Subjects
31
1
Purposeful Exposures
31
1
Accidental Exposures
32
1
Perfused Placentas
33
1
Animal Subjects
33
1
Choice of Animal as the Model
33
1
Applicability of Animal Data
34
1
Conditions of Exposure
35
1
Exchangeable and Nonexchangeable Substances
35
2
Nutrients---Elemental and Molecular
35
1
Biological Molecules
36
1
Radiopharmaceuticals
36
1
Environmental Pollutants
37
1
Distribution in Pregnant Women
37
2
Tissue Deposition During Pregnancy
37
1
Maternal Organs and Placenta as External Sources of Fetal Exposure
38
1
Effects of Prenatal Irradiation
39
14
Early Effects
39
5
Preimplantation Period (Blastogenesis)
40
1
Period of Organ Formation (Organogenesis)
41
1
Period of the Fetus (Fetogenesis)
42
2
Delayed Effects
44
3
Reduced Organ and Body Growth
44
1
Structural Defects of the Central Nervous System
45
1
Impaired Neurological Function and Behavior
46
1
Gametes and Hematopoietic Cells
47
1
Late Effects
47
1
Factors Modifying Effects of Prenatal Radiation
48
2
Distribution of Dose in Time
48
1
Relative Biological Effectiveness and Radiation Weighting Factors
49
1
Cell Migration and Differentiation
49
1
Effects of Internally Deposited Radionuclides
50
3
Factors to Establish Fetoplacental Concentrations and Radiation Doses
53
25
Modeling and Kinetics
53
6
Modeling
53
4
Kinetics
57
2
Maternal and Fetoplacental Dynamics
59
1
Dosimetry
59
10
Dosimetric Quantities
61
1
Dosimetric Formulations
62
2
Energy Emitted per Nuclear Transition
64
1
Masses of the Target Regions
64
3
Absorbed Fraction and Specific Absorbed Fraction
67
1
Cumulated Activity and Number of Nuclear Transformations
68
1
Dosimetric Formulations for Embryo/Fetus
69
5
Current Dosimetric Formulations
69
3
Earlier Dosimetric Formulations
72
2
Other Considerations
74
4
Extrapolation of Animal Data
74
1
Fetal and Maternal Excretion
75
1
Role of Growth
76
1
Other Modifying Factors
76
2
Estimation of Embryo/Fetus Dose in Radiation Protection Practice
78
10
Operational Approaches
78
3
Typical Situations
78
1
Characterization of Radionuclide in the Woman
79
1
Representative Scenarios
80
1
Nuclear Medicine Procedures
80
1
Occupational Settings
80
1
Delayed Detection of Exposure---Occupational or GeneralPopulation
80
1
Prenatal Radiation Dose from Maternal Burdens or Intakes
81
4
Information Sources to Facilitate Dosimetry
81
1
Radiopharmaceuticals
82
1
Well-Characterized Intakes or Depositions
83
1
Incompletely Characterized Radionuclides or Depositions
84
1
Concentration Ratios
84
1
Uterine Surrogate
85
1
General Estimates
85
1
Secondary Evaluations and Derived Limits
85
3
Use of Uterine Dose as Surrogate
86
1
Dose to the Embryo/Fetus and ALI
86
1
Depositions Before Pregnancy
87
1
Chronic or Multiple Intakes
87
1
Research Needs
88
3
Additional and More Adequate Data
88
1
Development of Concepts and Procedures
88
3
Extrapolation and Chronicity Problems
88
1
Nonuniform Fetal Deposition
89
1
Extraembryonic Deposition
90
1
Summary and Conclusions
91
2
Appendix A. Selected Physical and Biological Data---By Element
93
124
A.1 Hydrogen
94
2
A.1.1 Biological Information
94
1
A.1.2 Fetal/Placental Information
95
1
A.2 Helium
96
1
A.3 Lithium
96
1
A.4 Beryllium
97
1
A.5 Boron
97
1
A.6 Carbon
98
1
A.6.1 Biological Information
98
1
A.6.2 Fetal/Placental Information
98
1
A.7 Nitrogen
99
1
A.8 Oxygen
100
1
A.8.1 Biological Information
100
1
A.8.2 Fetal/Placental Information
100
1
A.9 Fluorine
100
1
A.9.1 Biological Information
100
1
A.9.2 Fetal/Placental Information
101
1
A.10 Neon
101
1
A.11 Sodium
101
1
A.11.1 Biological Information
101
1
A.11.2 Fetal/Placental Information
102
1
A.12 Magnesium
102
1
A.12.1 Biological Information
102
1
A.12.2 Fetal/Placental Information
102
1
A.13 Aluminum
103
1
A.14 Silicon
103
1
A.15 Phosphorus
104
1
A.15.1 Biological Information
104
1
A.15.2 Fetal/Placental Information
104
1
A.16 Sulfur
105
1
A.16.1 Biological Information
105
1
A.16.2 Fetal/Placental Information
106
1
A.17 Chlorine
106
1
A.18 Argon
107
1
A.19 Potassium
107
1
A.20 Calcium
107
2
A.20.1 Biological Information
108
1
A.20.2 Fetal/Placental Information
108
1
A.21 Scandium
109
1
A.22 Titanium
109
1
A.23 Vanadium
110
1
A.23.1 Biological Information
110
1
A.23.2 Fetal/Placental Information
110
1
A.24 Chromium
111
1
A.24.1 Biological Information
111
1
A.24.2 Fetal/Placental Information
111
1
A.25 Manganese
112
1
A.25.1 Biological Information
112
1
A.25.2 Fetal/Placental Information
113
1
A.26 Iron
113
4
A.26.1 Biological Information
113
1
A.26.2 Fetal/Placental Information
114
1
A.26.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
115
2
A.27 Cobalt
117
4
A.27.1 Biological Information
117
1
A.27.2 Fetal/Placental Information
118
2
A.27.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
120
1
A.28 Nickel
121
1
A.28.1 Biological Information
121
1
A.28.2 Fetal/Placental Information
121
1
A.29 Copper
122
1
A.29.1 Biological Information
122
1
A.29.2 Fetal/Placental Information
122
1
A.30 Zinc
123
4
A.30.1 Biological Information
123
1
A.30.2 Fetal/Placental Information
124
3
A.31 Gallium
127
1
A.31.1 Biological Information
127
1
A.31.2 Fetal/Placental Information
127
1
A.32 Germanium
128
1
A.33 Arsenic
129
2
A.33.1 Biological Information
129
1
A.33.2 Fetal/Placental Information
130
1
A.34 Selenium
131
2
A.34.1 Biological Information
131
1
A.34.2 Fetal/Placental Information
132
1
A.34.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
133
1
A.35 Bromine
133
1
A.36 Krypton
134
2
A.36.1 Biological Information
134
1
A.36.2 Fetal/Placental Information
134
2
A.36.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
136
1
A.37 Rubidium
136
1
A.37.1 Biological Information
136
1
A.37.2 Fetal/Placental Information
137
1
A.38 Strontium
137
5
A.38.1 Biological Information
137
1
A.38.2 Fetal/Placental Information
138
3
A.38.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
141
1
A.39 Yttrium
142
1
A.39.1 Biological Information
142
1
A.39.2 Fetal/Placental Information
142
1
A.40 Zirconium
143
1
A.40.1 Biological Information
143
1
A.40.2 Fetal/Placental Information
143
1
A.41 Niobium
144
1
A.41.1 Biological Information
144
1
A.41.2 Fetal/Placental Information
144
1
A.42 Molybdenum
145
1
A.43 Technetium
146
3
A.43.1 Biological Information
146
1
A.43.2 Fetal/Placental Information
146
1
A.43.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
147
2
A.44 Ruthenium and Rhodium
149
4
A.44.1 Biological Information
151
1
A.44.2 Fetal/Placental Information
151
1
A.44.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
152
1
A.45 Palladium
153
1
A.45.1 Biological Information
153
1
A.45.2 Fetal/Placental Information
154
1
A.46 Silver
154
1
A.46.1 Biological Information
154
1
A.46.2 Fetal/Placental Information
154
1
A.47 Cadmium
155
4
A.47.1 Biological Information
155
1
A.47.2 Fetal/Placental Information
156
3
A.48 Indium
159
3
A.48.1 Biological Information
160
1
A.48.2 Fetal/Placental Information
160
1
A.48.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
161
1
A.49 Tin
162
1
A.49.1 Biological Information
162
1
A.49.2 Fetal/Placental Information
162
1
A.50 Antimony
163
1
A.50.1 Biological Information
163
1
A.50.2 Fetal/Placental Information
163
1
A.51 Tellurium
163
1
A.51.1 Biological Information
164
1
A.51.2 Fetal/Placental Information
164
1
A.52 Iodine
164
3
A.52.1 Biological Information
165
1
A.52.2 Fetal/Placental Information
165
2
A.53 Xenon
167
1
A.53.1 Biological Information
168
1
A.53.2 Fetal/Placental Information
168
1
A.54 Cesium
168
2
A.54.1 Biological Information
169
1
A.54.2 Fetal/Placental Information
169
1
A.55 Barium
170
1
A.55.1 Biological Information
171
1
A.55.2 Fetal/Placental Information
171
1
A.56 Lanthanide Series-General
171
2
A.56.1 Biological Information
172
1
A.56.2 Fetal/Placental Information
173
1
A.57 Cerium
173
2
A.57.1 Biological Information
173
1
A.57.2 Fetal/Placental Information
173
2
A.58 Gadolinium
175
1
A.58.1 Biological Information
175
1
A.58.2 Fetal/Placental Information
175
1
A.59 Hafnium
175
1
A.60 Tantalum
176
1
A.61 Tungsten
177
1
A.62 Rhenium
177
1
A.62.1 Biological Information
177
1
A.62.2 Fetal/Placental Information
177
1
A.63 Platinum Series
178
2
A.63.1 Biological Information
178
1
A.63.2 Fetal/Placental Information
179
1
A.64 Gold
180
2
A.64.1 Biological Information
181
1
A.64.2 Fetal/Placental Information
181
1
A.64.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
182
1
A.65 Mercury
182
2
A.65.1 Biological Information
182
1
A.65.2 Fetal/Placental Information
183
1
A.66 Thallium
184
2
A.66.1 Biological Information
184
1
A.66.2 Fetal/Placental Information
185
1
A.67 Lead
186
3
A.67.1 Biological Information
186
1
A.67.2 Fetal/Placental Information
187
2
A.68 Bismuth
189
2
A.68.1 Biological Information
190
1
A.68.2 Fetal/Placental Information
190
1
A.69 Polonium
191
2
A.69.1 Biological Information
191
1
A.69.2 Fetal/Placental Information
191
2
A.69.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
193
1
A.70 Astatine
193
1
A.71 Radon
193
3
A.71.1 Biological Information
194
1
A.71.2 Fetal/Placental Information
194
2
A.72 Francium
196
1
A.73 Radium
196
2
A.73.1 Biological Information
196
1
A.73.2 Fetal/Placental Information
197
1
A.74 Actinium
198
1
A.75 Thorium
199
1
A.75.1 Biological Information
199
1
A.75.2 Fetal/Placental Information
199
1
A.76 Proactinium
200
1
A.77 Uranium
200
2
A.77.1 Biological Information
201
1
A.77.2 Fetal/Placental Information
201
1
A.78 Neptunium
202
2
A.78.1 Biological Information
203
1
A.78.2 Fetal/Placental Information
203
1
A.79 Plutonium
204
6
A.79.1 Biological Information
204
1
A.79.2 Fetal/Placental Information
205
5
A.79.3 Radiation Dose Estimates
210
1
A.80 Americium
210
3
A.80.1 Biological Information
210
1
A.80.2 Fetal/Placental Information
211
2
A.81 Curium
213
1
A.81.1 Biological Information
214
1
A.81.2 Fetal/Placental Information
214
1
A.82 Berkelium, Californium and Einsteinium
214
2
A.82.1 Biological Information
214
1
A.82.2 Fetal/Placental Information
215
1
A.83 Fermium and Heavier Elements
216
1
Glossary
217
6
References
223
40
The NCRP
263
9
NCRP Publications
272
9
Index
281