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Tables of Contents for Surface Science
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Introduction
1
2
Basics of Two-Dimensional Crystallography
3
16
Two-Dimensional Lattices
3
3
Lattice, Basis, and Crystal Structure (3D Case)
3
1
Concept of a 2D Lattice
3
1
2D Bravais Lattices
4
2
Miller Indices for Crystal Planes
6
5
Definition of Miller Indices
6
2
Low-Miller-Index Planes of Some Important Crystals
8
1
High-Miller-Index Stepped Surfaces
8
3
Indices of Directions
11
1
Notation for Surface Structures
11
3
Matrix Notation
11
1
Wood's Notation
12
1
Some Examples
13
1
2D Reciprocal Lattice
14
2
Brillouin Zone
16
3
Problems
17
1
Further Reading
18
1
Experimental Background
19
28
Why Ultra-High Vacuum?
19
1
Vacuum Concepts
20
3
Ultra-High-Vacuum Technology
23
12
UHV Materials
23
1
UHV Pumping System
24
8
UHV Hardware
32
3
Preparation of Atomically Clean Surfaces
35
3
Cleavage
35
2
Heating
37
1
Chemical Treatment
37
1
Ion Sputtering and Annealing
37
1
UHV Deposition Technology
38
9
Deposition Concepts
38
1
Deposition Sources
39
4
Deposition Monitors
43
1
Exposure to Gases
44
1
Problems
45
1
Further Reading
46
1
Surface Analysis I. Diffraction Methods
47
30
Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED)
47
12
Ewald Construction in LEED Conditions
47
2
LEED Experimental Set-Up
49
2
Interpretation of a LEED Pattern
51
8
Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED)
59
7
Ewald Construction in RHEED Conditions
59
1
RHEED Set-Up
60
1
RHEED Analysis
61
5
Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD)
66
7
Refraction of X-Rays at Grazing Incidence
66
1
Ewald Construction in GIXRD Conditions and Basics of the Kinematic Approximation
67
2
GIXRD Experimental Set-Up
69
1
Structural Analysis by GIXRD
69
4
Other Diffraction Techniques
73
4
Transmission Electron Diffraction (TED)
73
1
Atom Scattering
73
1
Photoelectron Diffraction (PED) and Auger Electron Diffraction (AED)
74
1
Problems
74
1
Further Reading
75
2
Surface Analysis II. Electron Spectroscopy Methods
77
32
General Remarks
77
5
Surface Specificity
77
1
Spectrum of Secondary Electrons
77
1
Electron Energy Analyzers
78
4
Auger Electron Spectroscopy
82
7
Physical Principles
82
2
AES Experimental Set-Up
84
2
AES Analysis
86
3
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
89
9
Core Level Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
90
2
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
92
3
High-Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
95
3
Photoelectron Spectroscopy
98
11
Photoelectric Effect
98
1
PES Experimental Set-Up
99
2
PES Analysis
101
6
Problems
107
1
Further Reading
108
1
Surface Analysis III. Probing Surfaces with Ions
109
36
General Principles
109
14
Classical Binary Collisions
109
4
Scattering Cross-Section
113
1
Shadowing and Blocking
114
3
Channeling
117
1
Sputtering
118
2
Ion-Induced Electronic Processes
120
3
Low-Energy Ion Scattering Spectroscopy
123
6
General Remarks: Merits and Problems
123
1
Alkali Ion Scattering and Time-of-Flight Techniques
124
2
Quantitative Structural Analysis in Impact-Collision Geometry
126
3
Rutherford Backscattering and Medium-Energy Ion Scattering Spectroscopy
129
8
General Remarks
129
2
Surface Peak
131
5
Thin Film Analysis
136
1
Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis
137
1
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy
138
7
Problems
142
1
Further Reading
143
2
Surface Analysis IV. Microscopy
145
26
Field Emission Microscopy
145
2
Field Ion Microscopy
147
2
Transmission Electron Microscopy
149
3
Reflection Electron Microscopy
152
2
Low-Energy Electron Microscopy
154
2
Scanning Electron Microscopy
156
3
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
159
5
Atomic Force Microscopy
164
7
Problems
168
1
Further Reading
168
3
Atomic Structure of Clean Surfaces
171
24
Relaxation and Reconstruction
171
2
Relaxed Surfaces of Metals
173
3
Al(110)
173
1
Fe(211)
174
2
Reconstructed Surfaces of Metals
176
3
Pt(100)
176
2
Pt(110)
178
1
W(100)
178
1
Graphite Surface
179
1
Surfaces of Elemental Semiconductors
180
8
Si(100)
181
2
Si(111)
183
4
Ge(111)
187
1
Surfaces of III-V Compound Semiconductors
188
7
GaAs(110)
188
1
GaAs(111) and GaAs(111)
189
3
Problems
192
2
Further Reading
194
1
Atomic Structure of Surfaces with Adsorbates
195
34
Surface Phases in Submonolayer Adsorbate/Substrate Systems
195
1
Surface Phase Composition
196
9
Coverage of Adsorbate
197
2
Coverage of Substrate Atoms
199
1
Experimental Determination of Composition
200
5
Formation Phase Diagram
205
5
Metal Surfaces with Adsorbates
210
7
Family of √3x√3 Structures on (111) fcc Metal Surfaces
210
3
Ni(110)2x1-CO
213
1
n x 1 Structures in Pb/Cu(110), Bi/Cu(110), Li/Cu(110), and S/Ni(110) Systems
214
3
Semiconductor Surfaces with Adsorbates
217
12
Family of √3x√3 Structures on Si(111) and Ge(111)
217
7
2x1, 1x1, and 3x1 Phases in the H/Si(100) System
224
2
Problems
226
1
Further Reading
227
2
Structural Defects at Surfaces
229
32
General Consideration Using the TSK Model
229
8
Point Defects
229
3
Steps, Singular and Vicinal Surfaces, Facets
232
5
Selected Realistic Examples
237
24
Adatoms
237
2
Vacancies
239
4
Anti-Site Defects
243
2
Dislocations
245
2
Domain Boundaries
247
5
Steps
252
5
Facetting
257
3
Problems
260
1
Further Reading
260
1
Electronic Structure of Surfaces
261
34
Basics of Density Functional Theory
261
2
Jellium Model
263
3
Surface States
266
6
Electronic Structure of Selected Surfaces
272
5
Si(111)2x1
272
1
Si(111)7x7
273
2
Si(111)1x1-As
275
2
Si(111)√3x√3-In
277
1
Surface Conductivity
277
5
Work Function
282
13
Work Function of Metals
282
4
Work Function of Semiconductors
286
1
Work Function Measurements
286
7
Problems
293
1
Further Reading
293
2
Elementary Processes at Surfaces I. Adsorption and Desorption
295
30
Adsorption Kinetics
295
10
Coverage Dependence
296
5
Temperature Dependence
301
4
Angular and Kinetic Energy Dependence
305
1
Thermal Desorption
305
10
Desorption Kinetics
305
3
Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy
308
7
Adsorption Isotherms
315
4
Non-Thermal Desorption
319
6
Problems
322
1
Further Reading
323
2
Elementary Processes at Surfaces II. Surface Diffusion
325
32
Basic Equations
325
5
Random-Walk Motion
325
2
Fick's Laws
327
3
Tracer and Chemical Diffusion
330
1
Intrinsic and Mass Transfer Diffusion
331
2
Anisotropy of Surface Diffusion
333
2
Atomistic Mechanisms of Surface Diffusion
335
6
Hopping Mechanism
336
2
Atomic Exchange Mechanism
338
1
Tunneling Mechanism
338
2
Vacancy Mechanism
340
1
Surface Diffusion of Clusters
341
4
Surface Diffusion and Phase Formation
345
3
Surface Electromigration
348
1
Experimental Study of Surface Diffusion
349
8
Direct Observation of Diffusing Atoms
349
1
Profile Evolution Method
350
3
Capillarity Techniques
353
1
Island Growth Technique
354
2
Problems
356
1
Further Reading
356
1
Growth of Thin Films
357
32
Growth Modes
357
2
Nucleation and Growth of Islands
359
15
Island Number Density
359
6
Island Shape
365
3
Island Size Distribution
368
6
Vacancy Islands
374
1
Kinetic Effects in Homoepitaxial Growth
374
3
Strain Effects in Heteroepitaxy
377
2
Thin Film Growth Techniques
379
4
Molecular Beam Epitaxy
379
2
Solid Phase Epitaxy
381
1
Chemical Beam Epitaxy
382
1
Surfactant-Mediated Growth
383
6
Problems
386
1
Further Reading
387
2
Atomic Manipulations and Nanostructure Formation
389
28
Nano-Size and Low-Dimensional Objects
389
4
Atomic Manipulation with STM
393
11
Lateral Atomic Displacement
394
5
Atom Extraction
399
4
Atom Deposition
403
1
Self-Organization of Nanostructures
404
4
Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes
408
9
Further Reading
415
2
References
417
16
Index
433