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Tables of Contents for Seeing Between the Pixels
Chapter/Section Title
Page #
Page Count
Part I Preliminaries
3
22
1 Introduction
3
22
1.1 Pictures and Society
5
4
1.2 Pictures and Language in Computer Science
9
5
1.3 Dialogue Systems
14
1
1.4 Pictures as Systems
15
2
1.5 Organization of the Book
17
8
Part II Fundamentals
25
76
2 Pictures in Computer Systems
25
18
2.1 Desktop Publishing
28
2
2.2 Drawing Programs
30
2
2.3 Hypertext Systems
32
2
2.4 Image Processing Software
34
2
2.5 Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics Systems
36
2
2.6 Computer Simulation
38
3
2.7 Summary
41
2
3 Classification of Pictures
43
20
3.1 Classes of Pictures
43
5
3.1.1 Presentational Pictures
44
2
3.1.2 Abstract-Graphical Pictures
46
1
3.1.3 Pictograms
47
1
3.2 Pictures Made of Visual Signs
48
6
3.2.1 Natural and Non-Natural Signs
49
1
3.2.2 Other Classes of Signs
50
1
3.2.3 Are There Visual Signs Independent of Conventions?
51
2
3.2.4 Arbitrariness of Conventional Signs
53
1
3.2.5 Summary of the Semiotic Excurse
53
1
3.3 Classification Scheme for Pictures
54
7
3.3.1 Characteristics of the Classes of Pictures
54
3
3.3.2 Contours of the Terms of the Classification Scheme
57
4
3.4 Discussion
61
2
4 Picture Processing by Humans
63
18
4.1 Pictures and the Iconic Code
64
3
4.2 Perception, Learning and Cognition
67
2
4.3 Cognitive Theories
69
3
4.4 Understanding of Pictures: The Communicative Theory Point of View
72
4
4.5 Human Memory Performance
76
5
5 Information Flow During Human-Computer Interaction
81
20
5.1 Information Theory
81
3
5.2 Information Transfer Between Humans
84
1
5.3 Transmitted and Transputed Information in Human-Computer Interaction
85
9
5.3.1 Information Transmitted and Transputed by a Computer
89
2
5.3.2 Information Transmitted and Transputed by Users
91
3
5.4 Methods of Transputing Information
94
1
5.5 Analysis of Some Dialogue Systems
95
2
5.6 Discussion
97
4
Part III Abstract-Graphical Pictures
101
72
6 Abstract-Graphical Pictures and Some Applications
101
12
6.1 Characterization
101
1
6.2 Focus on Relations Between Elements
102
2
6.3 Focus on Functionality
104
1
6.4 Focus on Behavior
105
2
6.5 Focus on Properties of Elements
107
2
6.6 Abstract-Graphical Pictures for Cognitive Processing
109
2
6.7 Discussion
111
2
7 Analysis of Abstract-Graphical Pictures
113
14
7.1 Requirements
114
1
7.2 Methodology
115
2
7.3 An Application to Pictures in Dictionaries
117
4
7.4 An Application to Business Graphics
121
4
7.5 Discussion
125
2
8 Users' Analysis and Criticism of Abstract-Graphical Pictures
127
20
8.1 The Role of Animation During Simulation
128
5
8.1.1 Simulation Methodology
129
1
8.1.2 Model Validation and User Support
130
2
8.1.3 Underestimation of Animation
132
1
8.2 Information Sources for the Computer
133
5
8.2.1 User Observations
133
1
8.2.2 Oracles Yesterday and Today
134
2
8.2.3 Architecture of an Oracle-Based Model Modification
136
2
8.3 Requirements and Components of an Oracle System for Simulation
138
3
8.3.1 Typical Oracles in Simulation
138
1
8.3.2 Knowledge Base
139
1
8.3.3 Results of the Reasoning Component
140
1
8.4 A Prototypical Implementation
141
5
8.4.1 Environment for the Implementation
141
2
8.4.2 Scenario
143
3
8.5 Discussion
146
1
9 Viewpoint Descriptions
147
26
9.1 Viewpoint Descriptions in Simulation
148
1
9.2 Information Conveyed by Animations
148
2
9.3 Formalism of Viewpoint Descriptions
150
8
9.3.1 Documentation
151
3
9.3.2 Criticism
154
2
9.3.3 The Complete Formalism
156
1
9.3.4 Temporal Aspects and Verbal Descriptions as General Additions
157
1
9.4 Implementation of the Viewpoint Description for the Simulator Create!
158
6
9.4.1 How to Use the Viewpoint Description
158
5
9.4.2 Example of a Viewpoint Description
163
1
9.5 Applications
164
6
9.5.1 Addition to the Knowledge Base for Oracle-Based Model Modification
164
2
9.5.2 Model Documentation with Viewpoint Descriptions
166
4
9.6 Discussion
170
3
Part IV Pictograms
173
54
10 The Nature of Pictograms and Their Use
173
18
10.1 Typicality of Pictograms
174
1
10.2 Pictograms and Their Normalization Demands
175
2
10.3 Methods for Describing Pictures
177
5
10.3.1 Frege's Notation
178
2
10.3.2 Pictureless Knowledge Processing
180
2
10.4 Picture Frames
182
6
10.4.1 Constituent Parts of Picture Frames
182
1
10.4.2 Interactive Problem Solving with Picture Frames
183
1
10.4.3 An Application in Computer Aided Instruction of Chemistry
184
4
10.5 Are Combinations of Pictograms Still Pictograms?
188
3
11 Pictograms as Words
191
14
11.1 Choice of Pictograms
192
2
11.2 Evaluation of Pictograms
194
2
11.3 Ambiguity of Pictograms
196
1
11.4 Some Drawbacks of Pictograms in User Interfaces
197
2
11.4.1 Physiological Stress
198
1
11.4.2 Cognitive Stress
198
1
11.5 Speech to Augment Pictograms in User Interfaces
199
3
11.5.1 Speech in User Interfaces
199
1
11.5.2 An Experimental Interface
200
2
11.6 Discussion
202
3
12 Pictograms as Pictures
205
10
12.1 Design of Pictograms as Pictures
205
2
12.2 Pragmatics of Pictograms
207
3
12.3 Pictograms and Their Context
210
5
13 Formal Representations and Informal Presentations
215
12
13.1 Pictures as Write-Only Data Structures
215
3
13.2 Formal and Less Formal Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction
218
2
13.2.1 Formal Notations as Extensions to Informal Concepts
218
1
13.2.2 Formalization in Knowledge-Based Systems
219
1
13.3 Semi-Formal Representations
220
3
13.3.1 Characteristics of Semi-Formal Representations
220
1
13.3.2 The Trichotomy Informal - Semi-Formal - Formal
221
2
13.4 Discussion
223
4
Part V Presentational Pictures
227
94
14 Image Generation
227
22
14.1 Background
228
2
14.2 Object Layout
230
2
14.3 Choosing the Perspective
232
2
14.4 Choosing Light Sources
234
1
14.5 Cutaways and Ghosting
235
2
14.6 Complex Communicative Goals
237
1
14.7 Animation
238
11
14.7.1 Cinematic Editing
239
4
14.7.2 Animation of Complex Processes
243
6
15 Alternative Rendering of Images
249
32
15.1 Standardization
249
3
15.2 Standardization in Computer Graphics
252
3
15.3 Affecting the Effect of Rendered Images
255
3
15.3.1 Some Advanced Graphical Presentation Techniques
255
2
15.3.2 Information Flow
257
1
15.4 The Sketch-Renderer
258
6
15.4.1 Software Organization
258
1
15.4.2 The User Interface
259
1
15.4.3 Examples
260
4
15.5 Algorithms for the Sketch-Renderer
264
6
15.5.1 Rendering
264
1
15.5.2 Sketching Shadows
265
1
15.5.3 Drawing Lines and Circles
266
4
15.6 Special Effects in Line Drawings
270
2
15.6.1 Leaving Out Detail
270
1
15.6.2 Representing Movements of Objects
271
1
15.7 Assessing the Effect of Rendered Images
272
6
15.7.1 Experiment
274
1
15.7.2 Results
274
3
15.7.3 Interpretation of the Results
277
1
15.8 Discussion
278
3
16 Tactile Computer Graphics
281
14
16.1 Introduction
281
1
16.2 Tactile Output
282
1
16.3 Blind Computer Users
283
2
16.4 Visual and Tactile Graphics: A Comparison
285
3
16.5 Constructing 2D 3D Models
288
2
16.6 A Rendering Editing System for Tactile Graphics
290
2
16.7 Discussion
292
3
17 Immersive Systems
295
26
17.1 Reality and Immersion
295
4
17.1.1 The Role Model
296
1
17.1.2 Augmented Reality
297
2
17.2 Degrees of Immersion
299
3
17.2.1 Low Level of Immersion
299
1
17.2.2 Head-Tracking and Parallax to Improve Immersion
299
3
17.2.3 Head-Mounted Displays in Immersive Systems
302
1
17.3 How Much Immersion Is Enough?
302
3
17.3.1 Monitors Versus Head-Mounted Displays
303
1
17.3.2 Spatial Perception of Architects
303
1
17.3.3 Degree of Presence
304
1
17.4 Support for Richer Interaction in Immersive Systems
305
11
17.4.1 Requirements
307
1
17.4.2 Hyper-Rendering
307
2
17.4.3 Notes on the Implementation of a Hyper-Renderer
309
2
17.4.4 Applications of Hyper-Rendering
311
5
17.5 Discussion
316
5
Part VI Epilogue
321
24
18 Pictures and Language
321
16
18.1 A Comparison Between Pictures and Language
321
7
18.1.1 Disadvantages of Presentational Pictures Compared to Language
323
3
18.1.2 Advantages of Presentational Pictures over Language
326
1
18.1.3 Common Strengths of Presentational Pictures and Language
327
1
18.2 Languages for Non-verbal Communication
328
2
18.3 Going Full Circle
330
7
19 Quo vadis?
337
8
19.1 Falsification of Pictures
338
3
19.2 The Grey Area Between Enhancement and Falsification
341
1
19.3 The Bottom Line
342
3
List of Figures, Tables, and Credits
345
10
List of Petroglyphs
355
2
Bibliography
357
12
Subject Index
369
6
Author Index
375